Full Name: Schmidt, Georg
Gender: male
Date Born: 1896
Date Died: 1965
Place Born: Basel, Basle-Town, Switzerland
Place Died: Basel, Basle-Town, Switzerland
Home Country/ies: Switzerland
Metzler Kunsthistoriker Lexikon: zweihundert Porträts deutschsprachiger Autoren aus vier Jahrhunderten. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1999, pp. 360-63.
Full Name: Schmidt, Eduard
Gender: male
Date Born: 1879
Date Died: 1963
Place Born: Frankfurt am Main, Hesse, Germany
Place Died: Munich, Bavaria, Germany
Home Country/ies: Germany
Student of A. Fürtwangler. Professor at the University of Kiel, 1925-1945
Archaistische Kunst, 1922.Klazzismus und Klassik in der antiken Kunst, 1930.
Archäologenbildnisse: Porträts und Kurzbiographien von Klassichen Archäologen deutscher Sprache. Reinhard Lullies, ed. Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1988: 198-199.
Student of A. Fürtwangler. Professor at the University of Kiel, 1925-1945
Full Name: Schmidt-Degener, F.
Other Names:
Gender: male
Date Born: 1881
Date Died: 1941
Place Born: Rotterdam, South Holland, Netherlands
Place Died: Amsterdam, North Holland, Netherlands
Home Country/ies: Netherlands
Subject Area(s): museums (institutions)
Career(s): directors (administrators) and museum directors
Museum director; poet. Schmidt-Degener attended the Gymnasium at Rotterdam. He began studying Art History in Berlin continuing his study for four years further at the Sorbonne without completing a degree. In 1908 he became the Director of the Boymans Museum at Rotterdam. At the Boymans, he reorganized the museum and changed the installations in order to give a broader overview. As a museum reformer, he played a mayor role in the Rijkscommissie voor het Museumwezen (State Commission for Museum Affairs) set up in 1919. A museum, he insisted, was not principally a depository of art works for archivists and art historians to study, but rather a place for the public to enjoy beauty. He espoused exhibiting works of art for exhibition based upon their aesthetic merit, contending that works important primarily for study and research should be viewed separately. His appointment as Director of the Amsterdam Rijksmuseum in 1921 brought the same dramatic reorganization to that museum as he had done in Rotterdam. He mixed objects of various media together in his installations, paintings with sculptures and other art objects in a manner similar to what Wilhelm Bode had done in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum in Berlin. Separate departments of national history were opened in Rijksmuseum in 1930 and 1937. Schmidt-Degener engaged in new acquisitions of art, including a series of Rembrandt paintings. He dedicated two exhibitions in 1932 and 1935 to the artist, who remained among his favorites. For the latter exhibition, Schmidt-Degener visited the United States to borrow Rembrandt paintings. As an arbiter of taste, he was strongly attracted by artists who expressed their inner life in their works. Among Dutch artists, he preferred those who represented the early Netherlandish tradition of painting and sculpture before Italian or classical influences. He published several articles on foreign and Dutch art in De Gids, The Burlington Magazine and in Gazette des Beaux-Arts, and also wrote essays and monographs on his preferred painters: Rembrandt, Adriaen Brouwer, Frans Hals and, with the art historian H. E. Van Gelder, on Jan Steen. Schmidt-Degener achieved an international reputation; the London exhibition of Dutch art at Burlington House in 1929 was mainly organized under his direction. It was this show which revealed his subjective taste. The Dutch historian and writer Johan Huizinga (1872-1945) puzzled over Schmidt-Degener’s scant appreciation of Vermeer. Indeed, Schmidt-Degener regarded many seventeenth-century Dutch painters as minor artists because of the lack of drama in their works. His romantic view of Rembrandt as a misunderstood genius whose later works expressed the tragedy of his life, was strongly criticized in the 1960s by J. A. Emmens. As an active and innovative museum director, however, Schmidt-Degener’s reputation is undisputed. His transformation of the Rijksmuseum from a “national depository of paintings” to a widely visited museum was largely his doing. Though he did not consider himself an art historian, he accepted a doctorate Honoris Causa from the University of Amsterdam in 1932. The advent of World War II made the final years of his life and career were very difficult. Just before the war he was obliged to place in safekeeping the most important paintings of his museum. In 1940 his wife died after a long illness and a year later he himself succumbed to a heart attack.
Adriaen Brouwer et son évolution artistique. Brussels: G. van Oest, 1908; Frans Hals. Amsterdam, 1924; Rembrandt und der holländische Barock. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1928; and Van Gelder, H. E. Quarante chefs-d’oeuvre de Jan Steen. Paris: G. Crès, 1929; “Individualisme et tradition dans l’art hollandais” Gazette des Beaux-Arts (1935, 1): 80-93; “La Belgique et la Hollande, divergences artistiques” Gazette des Beaux-Arts (1935, 2): 1-16; “La double carrière de Rembrandt” Gazette des Beaux-Arts (1936, 1): 33-51; “L’image de la Hollande a travers son art” Gazette des Beaux-Arts (1936, 1): 163-183; Compositie-problemen in verband met Rembrandt’s Schuttersoptocht. Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandsche uitgevers maatschappij, 1942; Phoenix: Vier essays: Rembrandts Vogel Phoenix; Herinnering aan Leopold; De eeuw van Flaubert; Rembrandt en Vondel. Amsterdam: J. M. Meulenhoff, 1942; Het blijvend beeld der Hollandse kunst. Verzamelde studiën en essays 1. Amsterdam: J. M. Meulenhoff, 1949.
Huizinga, J. “Herdenking van Frederik Schmidt Degener (10 December 1881 – 21 November 1941)” in Jaarboek der Nederlandsche Akademie van Wetenschappen. 1941-1942: 226-236; The Art Digest 16 (1941): 10; The Burlington Magazine 80 (1942): 77; Van Gelder, H.E. in Jaarboek van de Maatschappij der Nederlandsche Letterkunde te Leiden 1943-1945. Levensberichten: 207-224; Meijers, Debora J. “De democratisering van schoonheid. Plannen voor museumvernieuwingen in Nederland 1918-1921” Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 28 (1977): 55-104 [with English summary]; De Jong, A.A.M. “Schmidt Degener, Frederik” in Charité J. (ed.) Biografisch woordenboek van Nederland 1. The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1979: pp. 534-536; Luijten, Ger “‘De veelheid en de eelheid’: een Rijksmuseum Schmidt-Degener” Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 35 (1984): 351-429 [with English summary]; Luijten, Ger “Het Rijksmuseum als kunsthistorisch instituut” in Hecht, Peter; Stolwijk, Chris; Hoogenboom, Annemieke (eds.) Kunstgeschiedenis in Nederland. Negen opstellen. Amsterdam: Prometheus, 1998: 45-61.
Contributors: Monique Daniels
Museum director; poet. Schmidt-Degener attended the Gymnasium at Rotterdam. He began studying Art History in Berlin continuing his study for four years further at the Sorbonne without completing a degree. In 1908 he became the Director of the Boym
Full Name: Schmid, Heinrich Alfred
Gender: male
Date Born: 1863
Date Died: 1951
Place Born: Basel, Basle-Town, Switzerland
Place Died: Basel, Basle-Town, Switzerland
Home Country/ies: Switzerland
Subject Area(s): conservation (discipline) and conservation (process)
art historian Prague, Göttingen; 1919-38 Basel professor and conservator
Wölfflin, Heinrich. Heinrich Wölfflin, 1864-1945: Autobiographie, Tagebücher und Briefe. Joseph Ganter, ed. Basel: Schwabe & Co., 1982, p. 494; Metzler Kunsthistoriker Lexikon: zweihundert Porträts deutschsprachiger Autoren aus vier Jahrhunderten. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1999, pp. 358-60.
art historian Prague, Göttingen; 1919-38 Basel professor and conservator
Full Name: Schmarsow, August
Other Names:
Gender: male
Date Born: 1853
Date Died: 1936
Place Born: Schildfeld, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany
Place Died: Baden-Baden, Baden-Württemberg, Germany
Home Country/ies: Germany
Subject Area(s): architecture (object genre), Northern European, Renaissance, and sculpture (visual works)
Scholar of Renaissance- and northern-European architecture and art; art historical theorist; chair of the art history department at Leipzig University (1893-1919). Schmarsow studied under Carl Nicolaus Heinrich Justi, who profoundly influenced him. In 1893 he succeed Anton Springer as chair of art history at the University in Leipzig, beating out Heinrich Wölfflin. Schmarsow, in his inaugural lecture at Leipzig, “Das Wesen der architektonischen Schöpfung” (The Essence of Architectural Creation), focused on defining architecture exclusively as the spatial art, in contrast to Wölfflin ‘s formalism (Mallgrave). However, at Leipzig, Schmarsow incorporated ideas similar to Wölfflin as well as the concept’s of anthropology of his Leipzig colleague, the psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). He became devoted to the idea of founding an institute for art in Florence akin to the Deutsche Archäologische Institut (DAI) in Rome. To that end, he brought together eight students from various universities into seminars on Masaccio and Italian sculpture. These students included Aby M. Warburg, Max J. Friedländer, Hans Burmeister, In 1897, Schmarsow fully implemented theories of spatial interpretation in his book Barock und Rokoko: das Malerische in der Architektur: eine kritische Auseinandersetzung (Baroque and Rococo, the Painterly in Architecture: a Critical Comparison). This book, the first part of a trilogy, was also groundbreaking in that it considered Baroque architecture, only recently rehabilitated from neglect and disparagement by Cornelius Gurlitt in 1887. In 1905, Schmarsow published Grundbegriffe der Kunstwissenschaft am übergang vom Altertum zum Mittelalter (Fundamental principles of the science of art at the transition from antiquity to the middle ages), following the ideas of Aloïs Riegl in his recently published Spätrömische Kunstindustrie that the significance of space is part of psychological expression of a particular period of history. The book also outlined Schmarsow’s “the three principles of human organization” – symmetry, proportionality, and rhythm. In 1907 he published his evolutionary approach to ethetics, “Kunstwissenschaft und Völkerpsycholgie.” His students included two who succeeded him in his Leipzig chair, Wilhelm Pinder, who succeeded him immediately in 1919, and Johannes Jahn in 1958. Schmarsow was a highly innovative art historian. He was the first to consider the spaces in buildings as an architectural elements. His description of buildings uses biological metaphors, making them appear as if they had psychological intent. Although he attacked Wölfflin and Gottfried Semper as reducing architecture to the “act of dressing,” his methodology employs much of Semper’s theory of architectural space through the inhabitor’s use and axial orientation, extending them to painting and sculpture (Mallgrave). Schmarsow assigned the concept “painterly” (malerisch) to architecture as a way to explain the exuberances of the Baroque, a period of which he was one of the earliest to write about. Gombrich assessed Schmarsow as not a lucid thinker but one aware of theoretical problems. Like the classicist Hermann Usener (1834-1905) and cultural historian Karl Lamprecht, he liked to speculate about origins. Strongly evolutionist in his thinking, he used the analogy for his 1907 paper on esthetics. According to him, the primary artistic impulses were mimicry (gesture) and sculpture, followed by architecture and music.
Das Wesen der architektonischen Schöpfung. Leipzig: Hiersemann, 1894, English, in Mallgrave, Harry Francis, and Ikonomou, Eleftherios, eds. Empathy, Form, and Space: Problems in German Aesthetics, 1873-1893. Santa Monica, CA: Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities, 1994; “über den Werth der Dimensionen im menschlichen Raumgebilde.” Berichte über die Verhandlungen der königlich Sächsichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Philologische-historische Klass 48 (1896): 44-61; Barock und Rokoko: das Malerische in der Architektur: eine kritische Auseinandersetzung. Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1897; Grundbegriffe der Kunstwissenschaft am übergang vom Altertum zum Mittelalter, kritisch erörtert und in systematischem Zusammenhange dargestellt. Leipzig/Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1905.
Wulff, Oskar. “August Schmarsow zum 80.” Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte 2 no. 3 (1933): 207-209; Watkin, David. The Rise of Architectural History. London: Architectural Press, 1980, p. 11, 116; Gombrich, Ernst H. Aby Warburg: An Intellectual Biography. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986, pp. 40-41; The Dictionary of Art; Mallgrave, Harry Francis. Gottfried Semper: Architect of the Nineteenth Century. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996, pp. 368; Metzler Kunsthistoriker Lexikon: zweihundert Porträts deutschsprachiger Autoren aus vier Jahrhunderten. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1999, pp. 355-58; “Introduction.” Games, Stephen. Pevsner on Art and Architecture: the Radio Talks. London: Methuen, 2002, p. xviii; Cepl, Jasper. “August Schmarsows ‘Barock und Rokoko’ – ein Beitrag zur ästhetischen Erziehung des modernen Architekten.” in, Schmarsow, August. Barock und Rokoko: das Malerische in der Architektur: eine kritische Auseinandersetzung. 2nd reprint ed. Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 2001, pp. 1-22; Porter, Roy Malcolm, Jr. The Essence of Architecture: August Schmarsow’s Theory of Space. [Ph. D. Thesis], University of Pennsylvania, 2005.
Scholar of Renaissance- and northern-European architecture and art; art historical theorist; chair of the art history department at Leipzig University (1893-1919). Schmarsow studied under Carl Nicolaus Heinrich Justi, who pro
Full Name: Schmalenbach, Werner
Gender: male
Date Born: 1920
Place Born: Göttingen, Lower Saxony, Germany
Home Country/ies: Germany
Subject Area(s): Modern (style or period)
Modernist art historian and museum director, film historian, and author of monographs on the artists Schwitters and Bissier. Schmalenbach’s father was Herman Schmalenbach and his mother Sala Muentz (Schmalenbach). He attended the University in Basel University. He joined the Gewerbemuseum Basel, Basel, Switzerland, as a curator in 1945. He married Esther Grey in 1950. In 1955 was appointed director of the Kestner-Gesellschaft Hannover, Hannover, Germany. He was Commissioner for 1960 International Venice Biennial. Between 1962 and his retirement in 1990, Schmalenbach was the first director of the newly founded Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen in Düsseldorf, Germany. Schmalenbach was appointed a member of Sotheby’s International advisory board in 1991 Schmalenbach published his memories in 1996.
and, Schmidt, Georg. Der Film: wirtschaftlich, gesellschaftlich, künstlerisch. Herausgegeben vom Schweizerischen Filmarchiv Basel. Basel: Holbein-Verlag, 1947. Kurt Schwitters. 1967. [English trans.] New York: H. N. Abrams 1970.
Werner Schmalenbach. Die Lust auf das Bild: ein Leben mit der Kunst. Berlin: Siedler, 1996.
Modernist art historian and museum director, film historian, and author of monographs on the artists Schwitters and Bissier. Schmalenbach’s father was Herman Schmalenbach and his mother Sala Muentz (Schmalenbach). He attended the University in Bas
Full Name: Schmalenbach, Ernst Friedman
Other Names:
Gender: female
Date Born: 13 July 1909
Date Died: July 2005
Place Born: Cologne, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany
Place Died: Lübeck, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany
Home Country/ies: Germany
Subject Area(s): Modern (style or period) and museums (institutions)
Career(s): directors (administrators) and museum directors
Institution(s): Kunstmuseum Basel
Museum director, exponent of modern art. Schmalenbach’s father, Eugen Schmalenbach (1873-1955), was a professor at Cologne in business studies. His mother was Marianne Sachs (1875-1956). The younger Schmalenbach graduated from a Realgymnasium in 1928 and studied art history, archaeology and history at the universities of Berlin under Edmund Hildebrandt, Freibug, Cologne under Albert Brinckmann, and Munich. His mother faced persecution from the Nazis due to her Jewish ancestry, and so the senior Schmalenbachs fled in 1933 to Bad Godesberg where they acted as a private tutor. Fritz Schmalenbach’s dissertation on the art nouveau in Münster was accepted by Martin Wackernagel in 1934 at Münster (Westfalen). His habilitation work was interrupted by the Nazi rules against Jewish people (and, like Schmalenbach, of Jewish ancestry) teaching. He fled to Basel, Switzerland in 1934 due to a lack of career prospects for non-aryans and an opposition to the national socialist party where he continued to research his habilitation. Unfortunately, the death of his supervisor made that degree impossible. He wrote his only article in the English language, “The Term ‘Neue Sachlichkeit’” in the Art Bulletin in 1940. In 1945 he married Susi Bing (b. 1905), a professor of Germanics. After World War II, he found a position as assistant curator at the Prints and Drawings department of the Kunstmuseum Basel. Five years later, he was named curator, remaining at that station until 1955. In 1956, he returned to Germany to head the Museen für Kunst und Kulturgeschichte der Hansestadt Lübeck where he remained until retiring in 1974. He was named an honorary professor at the Medizinischen Hochschule Lübeck. His cousin, Werner Schmalenbach, was also an art historian.
Contributors: Lee Sorensen and Zahra Hassan
Museum director, exponent of modern art. Schmalenbach’s father, Eugen Schmalenbach (1873-1955), was a professor at Cologne in business studies. His mother was Marianne Sachs (1875-1956). The younger Schmalenbach graduated from a Realgymnasium in 1
Full Name: Schlosser, Julius Alwin von
Other Names:
Gender: male
Date Born: 23 September 1866
Date Died: 03 December 1938
Place Born: Vienna, Vienna state, Austria
Place Died: Vienna, Vienna state, Austria
Home Country/ies: Austria
Subject Area(s): Viennese and Wiener Secession
Influential scholar and leader of the so-called (second) Vienna School of art history; successor to Max Dvořàk at the University of Vienna. Schlosser’s parents were Wilhelm Valentin von Schlosser (1820-1870), a military administrator, and Sophie Maria Eiberger (1830-1916). His mother was of Italian extraction and instilled in Schlosser such a close association with Italy that friends referred to him a “Giulo” throughout his life. Schlosser was the “star pupil” of (first) Vienna-school scholar Franz Wickhoff at the University of Vienna, studying under him 1884-1887 and the classicist art historian Otto Benndorf. Schlosser wrote his dissertation on early medieval cloisters under Wickhoff, accepted in 1888. After graduation, Schlosser joined the Institut für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung (Institute of Austrian Historical Research) under the diplomatics historian Theodor von Sickel (1826-1908). Sickel instilled in Schlosser Sickel’s strict appreciation for textual primary sources. After six months in research in Rome, he joined the staff of the Imperial collections (Kunsthistorische Hofmuseum, the modern Kunsthistorisches Museum) in Vienna in 1889, initally in the coins and medals division. Schlosser wrote his Habilitationsschrift in 1892. After a promotion to the and the arts and crafts collections, he was named director of the sculpture collection and (außerordentlicher) professor at Vienna in 1901. In 1903, he was offered a position at Prague, but declined to remain in Vienna. Schlosser’s study of primary texts of art history led to an ever-greater fascination with Lorenzo Ghiberti. He published Ghiberti’s memoirs in 1912. The following year he was knighted. In 1919 he became member of the Austrian academy of sciences. When the chair of the university’s art history department, Max Dvořák, died unexpectedly in 1922, Schlosser was nominated as his replacement. Schlosser, initiallly urged Wilhelm Pinder to the position but ultimately accepted the Ordinarius appointment himself. The enmity between the more conventional Vienna scholars and their collegue, Josef Rudolf Thomas Strzygowski, who had founded an art institute within the univeristy, grew to climax with Schlosser. In succeeding Dvořák, Schlosser now held the director chair of Strzygowski’s Institut. The two split the Institute in an bitter bifurcation with Strzygowski, claiming he held his chair longer, naming his instituion the first, Erstes Kunsthistorisches Institut or Wiener Institut. Schlosser maintained a separate art-historical institute to Strzygowski’s, known as the second, Zweites Kunsthistorisches Institut. In 1924 he published the Die Kunstliteratur, and essay-style intellectual bibliography on writings on art. Schlosser maintained a close friendship with the Italian philosopher and art writer Benedetto Croce, whose works he translated into German. Croce’s influence can be seen in Schlosser’s “Stilgeschichte” und “Sprachgeschichte” in der bildenden Kunst of 1935, a Croce-like separation of art and non-art. His friendship with the literary historian Karl Vossler (1872-1949) strengthened his interest in textual history. He was named professor emeritus in 1936. His monograph on Ghiberti, which remained incomplete at his death, was published posthumously in 1941. Schlosser was succeeded by a former student, Hans Sedlmayr. Assertions that Schlosser was a member of the Nazi party appear untrue–perhaps based a photo of him wearing a swastika pin, required of all faculty in 1938 (Johns, 2012). His students included many of the important scholars of the late twentieth century as well as the art-historical diaspora from the Nazis. These included Ernst Kris, Otto Kurz, E. H. Gombrich, Otto Pächt, Sedlmayr, Fritz Saxl, Ludwig Goldscheider, Charles de Tolnay, Hans R. Hahnloser and Gerhart Ladner. A genuine polymath, he was also an excellent cellist and toured with a string quartet of which Hahnloser was the violist. In later years he personally adopted the family name “Schlosser-Magnino” in deference to his mother’s family. He is buried in the Zentralfriedhof (cemetery) in Vienna. Schlosser is considered one of the giants of the discipline of art history in the twentieth century. Today, his best-known work is his survey of the entire corpus of western writing on art, from antiquity to modern times. Die Kunstliteratur includes guidebooks, technical treatises, works of criticism, and early historiography, providing an essential tool for appreciated the attitudes of artists and their public at all periods. Of particular interest to him were technical treatises and artists’ writings. Die Kunstliteratur, ironically, was hardly exploited by art historians, who during his lifetime seldom consulted documents prefering stylistic analysis and connoisseurship which better served (as in the case of Bernard Berenson or Roberto Longhi) the art market. Gombrich cites Schlosser’s interest in the fundamental question “What is Art?” as the reason why he at times selected comparatively minor art forms (for example, wax portraiture) to investigate. Methodologically, Schlosser embraced a Hegelian view of art, considering the individual artist to be the force of great art (as opposed to, for example, social conditions). This can most clearly be seen in his collected essays, Künstlerprobleme der Frührenaissance (1929). His writings, however, show a particular appreciation to the conditions under which art is produced, a similar approach to Aby M. Warburg, who was also of Schlosser’s generation. Schlosser saw stylistic development (“Zeitstile”) essentially as a fiction. Denying an evolution, his prefered scholarly text form was the monograph. The second half of Schlosser’s life was devoted to the study of Lorenzo Ghiberti, whose influence Schlosser had come to appreciate through the study of primary texts. As an art historian, Schlosser eschewed the specialist’s mantel. His articles ranged from ancient coinage “Kleinasiatische und thrakische Münzbilder der Kaiserzeit” (the Imperial coins of Asia Minor and Thrace) in 1891, to musical instruments, Kleiner Führer durch die Sammlung alter Musikinstrumente, (1922) to guides to the collections of the Imperial Museum. In terms of art historiography his books, Die Kunst- und Wunderkammern der Spätrenaissance, (1908) and Die Kunstliteratur are seminal. Dates of artwork were of less importance to him. Schlosser’s Kunst des Mittelalters (1923), for example, uses art works without dates, an approach similar to Wilhelm Worringer. Such an emphasis put him at odds with other high-profile art scholars. These included museum scholars, in particular the powerful Berlin director Wilhelm Bode; whereas Schlosser revered Ghiberti, Bode celebrated Donatello. Schlosser’s emphasis on the autonomous character of the discipline of art history was the major intellectual friction with Strzygowski.
[nearly complete list of writings:] Johns, K. T. “Julius Alwin Ritter von Schlosser: ein bio-bibliographischer Beitrag.” Kritische Berichte 16/4 (1989): 47-64; [dissertation:] Die abendländisches Klosteranlage des früheren Mittelalters. Vienna, 1888, published, Vienna: Gerold, 1889; “Kleinasiatische und thrakische Münzbilder der Kaiserzeit.” Numismatische Zeitschrift 23 (1891): 1-28; “Schriftquellen zur karolingischen Kunst.” Quellenschriften zur Kunstgeschichte, Neue Folge IV. Vienna: C. Graeser, 1892; Die Kunst- und Wunderkammern der Spätrenaissance: ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Sammelwesens. Leipzig: Klinkhardt & Biermann, 1908; “Lorenzo Ghibertis Denkwürdigkeiten. Prologomena zu einer künftigen Ausgabe.” Jahrbuch der K. K. Zentralkommission 4 (1910): 105ff.; Lorenzo Ghibertis Denkwürdigkeiten (I Commentarii). Zum ersten Maler nach der Handschrift der Biblioteca Nazionale vollständig herausgeben und erläutert. 2 vols. Berlin: Julius Bard, 1912; Kleiner Führer durch die Sammlung alter Musikinstrumente. Vienna: A. Schroll, 1922; Die Kunst des Mittelalters. Berlin-Potsdam: Athenaion, 1923; Die Kunstliteratur: ein Handbuch zur Quellenkunde der neueren Kunstgeschichte. Vienna: Anton Schroll, 1924, Italian, La letteratura artistica; manuale delle fonti della storia dell’arte moderna. Florence Nuova Italia, 1935. 3rd ed., 1964; supplement, appendix by Otto Kurz, 1937, 2nd ed., 1956; Künstlerprobleme der Frührenaissance. 3 vols. Vienna/Leipzig: Hölder-Pichler-Tempsky, 1929-1934; Die Wiener Schule der Kunstgeschichte. Innsbruck: Wagner, 1934, English, “The Vienna School of Art History.” trans. Karl T. Johns. Journal of Art Historiography 1 (December 2009): 1-50; “Stilgeschichte” und “Sprachgeschichte” in der bildenden Kunst. Munich: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1935; “über Stilgeschichte- und Sprachgeschichte der bildenden Kunst: ein Rückblick.” Sitzungberichte der bayrischen Akademie der Wissenschaft, Philosophisch-Historisch Abteilung 1, pp. 3-39, 1939; Leben und Meinungen des florentinischen Bildners Lorenzo Ghiberti. Basle: Holbein-Verlag, 1941.
“Julius von Schlosser.” in, Jahn, Johannes, ed. Die Kunstwissenschaft der Gegenwart in Selbstdarstellung. 2 vols. Leipzig: F. Meiner, 1924, pp. 95-134; “Festschrift für Julius Schlosser zum 60. Geburtstag.” Jahrbuch der kunsthistorischen Sammlungen in Wien Neue Folge, 1 (1927); Julius Schlosser: Festschrift zu seinem 60sten Geburtstag. Edited by Arpad Weixlgärtner and Leo Planiscig. Vienna: Amalthea, 1927; Kurz, Otto. “Julius von Schlosser: Personlita-Metodo-Lavoro.” Critica d’arte 11/12 (1955): 402-419 [confirmation of death date]; Dvorák, Max. Idealism and Naturalism in Gothic Art. Preface by Karl Maria Swoboda. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1967, p. 222; Kleinbauer, W. Eugene. Modern Perspectives in Western Art History: An Anthology of 20th-Century Writings on the Visual Arts. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971, pp. 3, 4, 89 cited; Kleinbauer, W. Eugene. Research Guide to the History of Western Art. Chicago: American Library Association, 1982, p. 122 mentioned; Podro, Michael. “Against Formalism: Schlosser on Stilgeschichte.” Akten des XXV. internationalen Kongresses für Kunstgeschichte (Vienna, 1983): vol. i, pp. 37-43; Wölfflin, Heinrich. Heinrich Wölfflin, 1864-1945: Autobiographie, Tagebücher und Briefe. Joseph Ganter, ed. 2nd ed. Basel: Schwabe & Co., 1984, p. 493; Bazin, Germain. Histoire de l’histoire de l’art; de Vasari à nos jours. Paris: Albin Michel, 1986, p. 164; German Essays on Art History. Gert Schiff, ed. New York: Continuum, 1988, pp. liii-lvi, 281; Johnson, W. McAllister. Art History: Its Use and Abuse. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988, p. 21; Gombrich, Ernst H. “Einige Erinnerungen an Julius von Schlosser als Lehrer.” Kritische Berichte 16/4 (1989): 5-9; Haja, M. “Schlosser Julius Alwin von.” Österreichisches Biographisches Lexikon 1815-1950 10 (1994): 218-219; Metzler Kunsthistoriker Lexikon: zweihundert Porträts deutschsprachiger Autoren aus vier Jahrhunderten. Stuttgart: Metzler, 1999, pp. 350-53; Rosenauer, Arthur. “Schlosser, Julius.” Dictionary of Art; Aurenhammer, Hans H. “Schlosser, Julius Ritter von.” Neue Deutsche Biographie 23 (2007): 105-107; Aurenhammer, Hans. Kunstgeschichte an der Universität Wien; Karl T. Johns, personal correspondence, December, 2012: [obituaries:] Gombrich, Ernst. “Julius von Schlosser.” The Burlington Magazine 74 no. 431 (February 1939): 98-99; Sedlmayr, Hans. “Julius Ritter von Schlosser.” Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung 52 (1938): 513-519; Hahnloser, Hans R. “Zum Gedächtnis von Julius von Schlosser.” Belvedere 13 (1938-43): 137-141.
Contributors: Lee Sorensen
Influential scholar and leader of the so-called (second) Vienna School of art history; successor to Max Dvořàk at the University of Vienna. Schlosser’s parents were Wilhelm Valentin von Schlosser (1820-1870), a military administrator, and Sophie M
Full Name: Schliemann, Heinrich
Other Names:
Gender: male
Date Born: 1822
Date Died: 1890
Place Born: Neubukow, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany
Place Died: Naples, Campania, Italy
Home Country/ies: Germany
Subject Area(s): Aegean, ancient, Ancient Greek (culture or style), archaeology, Early Western World, Mediterranean (Early Western World), Mycenaean, and Turkish (culture or style)
Amateur archaeologist whose finds were important for art history and archaeology; excavator of Mycenae and Troy. Schliemann was the son of a Protestant minister accused of embezzlement when Schliemann was a boy. Between 1836-41 Schliemann worked as a grocery clerk. His attempt to seek his fortune in the United States ended in shipwreck in Amsterdam. There merchant bankers B. H. Schröder & Co took him on for his aptitude of languages and business drive. After studying Russian and Dutch, the firm sent him to St. Petersburg, Russia, where he speculated on the indigo trade, married a Russian woman in 1852, and started a family. His business travel was constant (Paris, London, New York and gold-rush California). His astute investments (railroads in Cuba and the U.S., trade assisting the Crimean War, real estate in Paris) brought him great wealth. In 1863 he liquidated his business interests and retired from Schröder & Co in order to spend his fortune pursuing his personal interests. He tried writing, publishing a book of his travels in 1867. He then entered the Sorbonne studying languages and literatures, including Greek. In 1868 he traveled to Greece again (he had first been their during his business with Crimea) retracing steps of Ulysses in the Homeric tale. It appears that Frank Calvert (1828-1908), consular agent for the United States at the Dardanelles, first suggested to Schliemann that Hissarlik was the ancient Troy; the theory had first been proposed by Charles MacLaren (1782-1866) in his Dissertation on the Topography of the Plain of Troy, 1822. 1869 was a watershed year for Schliemann. He obtained a (United States) divorce from his Russian wife, published his second book, Ithaka in which he first asserted the theme which would drive his publications and discoveries the rest of his life: that the Homeric poem described real places which could be discovered by close reading of the text. Schliemann got archaeological advice on excavating Hissarlik from Calvert and, still in 1869, received a Ph. D. from the University of Rostock, Mecklenburg, Germany, lied in order to gain American citizenship, and remarried a Greek woman, Sophia Kastromenos, thirty years younger than he. In 1871 Schliemann received permission to dig at Hissarlik on the northwestern corner of present-day Turkey, but not after he had done some surreptitious digging. His amateurish methods and zeal to make discoveries destroyed much archaeological evidence. Still, his discoveries were spectacular. The initial season recovered a relief and ancient wall; the second summer yielded what Schliemann named “Priam’s Treasure.” These he published in Trojanische Alterthümer in 1874, translated the following year as Troy and its Remains. Problems with the Turkish government forced Schliemann to abandon Turkey and excavate Mycenae in the north-eastern Peloponnese of southern Greece. There he discovered the grave shafts now known as the “Grave Circle A” because of their circular arrangement, containing many artifacts from mainland Greece. Among these were the Gold burial masks, including the co-called “Mask of Agamemnon” and other bronze age artifacts. Schliemann, ever the self-promoter, reported his finds in the London Times and later in an 1878 book, Mycenæ, prefaced by William Gladstone (1809-1898). Schliemann returned to excavate Hissarlik in 1878-79, which he again publicized in the book Ilios: The City and Country of the Trojans in 1881. His work and publications attracted the German archaeologist and art historian Wilhelm Dörpfeld, who had been part of the team to unearth the Great Altar at Pergamon. In 1884 Schliemann returned to Tiryns, where he had dug in 1876, now with Dörpfeld helping maintain better archaeological standards. Schliemann unearthed and important late Bronze Age palace, which he published in his 1885 Tiryns: The Prehistoric Palace of the Kings of Tiryns. Once more he returned to Hissarlik in 1889-90. He attempted to purchase the land of the Knossos site in Crete, but was unsuccessful. He died in Naples the same year. So much of Schliemann was deception and ruthless enthusiasm that his accomplishments are difficult to evaluate. His ignorance of (or lack of appreciation for) archaeological strata led him to famously miss the 2nd millennia stratum of the Troy he sought, discovering instead a Bronze age settlement which he nevertheless claimed as Trojan. His friendship with Dörpfeld corrected many subsequent errors, including the discovery of 2nd millennia Mycenaean pottery missed in his initial digs. His infamous claim that discovering the source of Troy was his boyhood dream cannot be proven. His drive to publish nearly all of his finds, though never scholarly, lit a public appreciation for Aegean prehistoric art that plodding scholarship could never have achieved.
and Schliemann, Sophia Kastromenos. Heinrich Schliemann’s Selbstbiographie: bis zu seinem Tode vervollständigt. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1892; Trojanische Alterthümer: Bericht über die Ausgrabungen in Troja. Leipzig: F.A. Brockhaus, 1874, English, Troy and its Remains: a Narrative of Researches and Discoveries Made on the Site of Ilium, and in the Trojan Plain. London: J. Murray, 1875; and Virchow, Rudolf, and Ascherson, P. Ilios: Stadt und Land der Trojaner: Forschungen und Entdeckungen in der Troas und besonders auf der Baustelle von Troja. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1881, English, Ilios, the City and Country of the Trojans: the Results of Researches and Discoveries on the Site of Troy and throughout the Troad in the Years 1871-72-73-78-79. New York: Harper & Bros., 1881; Ithaka, der Peloponnes und Troja: archäologische Forschungen. Leipzig: Giesecke & Devrient, 1869; and preface by Gladstone, William E. Mycenæ: a Narrative of Researches and Discoveries at Mycenæ and Tiryns. New York: Scribner, Armstrong, 1878; and Adler, F. and Dörpfeld, Wilhelm. Tiryns: the Prehistoric Palace of the Kings of Tiryns: the Results of the Latest Excavations. New York: Scribner, 1885.
Archäologenbildnisse: Porträts und Kurzbiographien von Klassichen Archäologen deutscher Sprache. Reinhard Lullies, ed. Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1988: 45-46; Medwid, Linda M. The Makers of Classical Archaeology: A Reference Work. New York: Humanity Books, 2000, pp. 266-71; Myth, Scandal, and History: the Heinrich Schliemann Controversy and a First Edition of the Mycenaean Diary. Calder, William M., III, and Traill, David A., eds. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1986.
Amateur archaeologist whose finds were important for art history and archaeology; excavator of Mycenae and Troy. Schliemann was the son of a Protestant minister accused of embezzlement when Schliemann was a boy. Between 1836-41 Schliemann worked a
Full Name: Schleif, Hans
Gender: male
Date Born: 1902
Date Died: 1945
Place Born: Wiesbaden, Hesse, Germany
Place Died: Berlin, Germany
Home Country/ies: Germany
Subject Area(s): Ancient Greek (culture or style), Antique, the, and Classical
Specialist in ancient Greek architecture. A protégé of Wilhelm Dorpfeld, he participated in the excavations at Olympia. Joined the German Schutzstaffel (SS) in 1935, entering the Ahnenerbe (Ancestral Heritage section of the SS) as an archaeologist of prehistoric and ancient world. Assumed direction of the massive excavation project in Olympia in December, 1937 until suspension of all German archaeological digs in 1942. Despite his affiliations, was not able to assume the coveted position of Professor of Architecture at the Technical University of Berlin, and instead became ausserplanmäßige Professor at the University of Berlin in 1939. Killed himself, his second wife and young twin sons on April 27, 1945.
Archäologenbildnisse: Porträts und Kurzbiographien von Klassichen Archäologen deutscher Sprache. Reinhard Lullies, ed. Mainz am Rhein: Verlag Philipp von Zabern, 1988: 285-286; Helmut Heiber, Universität unter Hakenkreuz, Teil II, vol. 2, Munich: K.G. Saur, 1994, 34-35.
Specialist in ancient Greek architecture. A protégé of Wilhelm Dorpfeld, he participated in the excavations at Olympia. Joined the German Schutzstaffel (SS) in 1935, entering the Ahnenerbe (Ancestral Heritage section of the SS) as an archaeologist